On elite theory
Power, strategy, pragmatism
In reality the dominion of an organized minority, obeying a single impulse, over the unorganized majority is inevitable. The power of any minority is irresistable as against each single individual in the majority, who stands alone before the totality of the organized minority. A hundred men acting uniformly in concert, with a common understanding, will triumph over a thousand men who are not in accord and can therefore be dealt with one by one.
Meanwhile it will be easier for the former to act in concert and have a mutual understanding simply because they are a hundred and not a thousand. It follows that the larger the political community, the smaller the will the proportion of the governing minority to the governing majority will be, the more difficult will it be for the majority to organize for reaction against the minority. - Gaetano Mosca
Elites are attracted to power. The secret of political science is that politics consists of getting what you want. Is what you want to rule? Or to be well-ruled? If the former, why?
In philosophy, political science and sociology, elite theory is a theory of the state that seeks to describe and explain power relationships in society. The theory posits that a small minority, consisting of members of the economic elite and policymaking networks, holds the most power—and that this power is independent of democratic elections.
Through positions in corporations and influence over policymaking networks, through the financial support of foundations or positions with think tanks, or policy-discussion groups, members of the "elite" exert significant power over corporate and government decisions. The basic characteristics of this theory are that power is concentrated, the elites are unified, the non-elites are diverse and powerless, elites' interests are unified due to common backgrounds, and positions and the defining characteristic of power is institutional position.[2] Elite theory opposes pluralism, a tradition that emphasizes how multiple major social groups and interests have an influence upon and various forms of representation within more powerful sets of rulers, contributing to representative political outcomes that reflect the collective needs of society.
Power principle: Have power, respect power, and use power wisely. - Ray Dalio
Democratic systems function on the premise that voting behavior has a direct, noticeable effect on policy outcomes, and that these outcomes are preferred by the largest portion of voters. A study in 2014, correlated voters' preferences to policy outcomes, found that the statistical correlation between the two is heavily dependent on the income brackets of the voting groups. At the lowest income sampled, the correlation coefficient reached zero, whereas the highest income returned a correlation above 0.6. The conclusion was that there is a strong, linear correlation between the income of voters and how often their policy preferences become reality. The causation for this correlation has not yet been proven in subsequent studies, but is an area of research.
One example of political elites influencing the public at large. More evidence comes from a 2014 book by Martin Gilens, Affluence and Influence: Economic Inequality and Political Power in America, as well as a paper presenting the core results. In the study, Gilens compiled data from hundreds of surveys carried out across decades in the US. He showed that while the opinion of the voter at the median income correlates well with the opinion of the voter at the 90th percentile, when they disagree policy tends to reflect the opinion of the latter. Politicians, it seems, implement policies that rich people favor, even if they are against the wishes of the public at large. This finding is arguably relevant to the debate around immigration policy in Western countries, though that’s beyond the scope of this article.
Populists favor strong leaders. Status seekers don’t.
Elite theory posits that a small, distinct minority of people—the elites—hold a disproportionate amount of power and influence over political and societal decisions. This theory suggests that these elites, often characterized by their wealth, education, and social connections, control key institutions and resources, thus shaping policy outcomes and maintaining their dominance.
Dominance-orientation, rather than prestige, gives rise to what the researchers characterize as the “syndrome of extreme political discontent.”
Elite theorists argue that democratic processes and pluralism are often illusory, as true power resides not with the masses but with this concentrated group of influential individuals. Key proponents of elite theory include Vilfredo Pareto, Gaetano Mosca, and C. Wright Mills, who have variously described the mechanisms and implications of elite dominance in society.
Power is ubiquitous. Power is a thing that we have. Rather, it's a force, like atomic energy, that rules all relations. The notion of redistributing power reflects an inability to comprehend what power is. Power is dialectical and various; it's not one thing. Power moves in many directions, activating us. It's a kind of life force mixed with other forces, the force of thought and language, culture. It's all around and yet nowhere.
Burnham
James Burnham wrote extensively about elite theory, particularly in his book "The Managerial Revolution," published in 1941. In this work, Burnham explores the concept of a new elite emerging in modern society, which he referred to as the "managerial class."
Burnham argued that traditional capitalist elites, composed of business owners and industrial capitalists, were being replaced by a new class of managers, bureaucrats, and technocrats. This managerial class, according to Burnham, held the true power in society by controlling the administration and organization of large institutions, whether in the corporate, government, or military sectors.
Burnham proposed that power was shifting from traditional capitalists to managers and administrators who ran large organizations. This was a fundamental transformation in the structure of power and governance. He emphasized that managers, rather than owners, were becoming the primary decision-makers in corporations, governments, and other large institutions. These managers had the expertise and organizational control necessary to wield significant influence.
Burnham's theory highlighted the growing importance of technocratic and bureaucratic methods in managing society. The managerial class relied on specialized knowledge, technical expertise, and bureaucratic processes to maintain control. According to Burnham, the managerial class constituted a new ruling elite that was distinct from both the old capitalist class and the working class. This new elite had its own interests and priorities, often centered on efficiency, stability, and organizational control.
Burnham's ideas contributed to the broader discourse on elite theory by identifying and analyzing the rise of a new form of elite power in the context of mid-20th century industrial and bureaucratic societies. His work remains influential in discussions about the nature of power and governance in modern, complex organizations.
James Burnham's book The Machiavellians: Defenders of Freedom (1943) further develops his thoughts on elite theory by examining the ideas of several political thinkers who analyzed power dynamics and elite rule. In this book, Burnham draws upon the works of Niccolò Machiavelli and several Italian sociologists—Gaetano Mosca, Vilfredo Pareto, and Robert Michels—who are often associated with elite theory and realist perspectives on political power. Burnham's analysis offers a starkly realistic perspective on political structures, emphasizing that elite dominance is an inescapable feature of all societies.
By dissecting the mechanisms through which elites maintain their control, Burnham not only highlights the inevitability of oligarchic rule but also champions the importance of understanding these power dynamics as a means to safeguard political freedom. His synthesis of Machiavellian realism and elite theory provides a critical lens through which to examine contemporary political systems, urging people to confront the pragmatic realities of power in order to protect and enhance democratic ideals.
Burnham advocates for a realist approach to understanding politics, which involves recognizing the inevitability of elite rule and the continuous struggle for power. He argues that political analysis should be grounded in the actual behavior and practices of people rather than idealistic notions of how politics should work. Burnham explores the Machiavellian tradition of political thought, which emphasizes the importance of power, strategy, and pragmatic leadership. He interprets Machiavelli's ideas as a call to understand the mechanics of power and the nature of political leadership without moralistic judgments.
Drawing on the works of Mosca, Pareto, and Michels, Burnham discusses the concept of elites and the mechanisms by which they maintain power. These thinkers contributed significantly to the development of elite theory. Mosca introduced the idea of the "ruling class" and argued that all societies are divided between a minority that rules and a majority that is ruled. Pareto proposed the "circulation of elites," suggesting that different types of elites (e.g., "foxes" and "lions") periodically replace each other but the overall structure of elite rule remains. Michels formulated the "iron law of oligarchy," which posits that all organizations, regardless of their democratic intentions, inevitably develop oligarchic leadership structures.
Despite recognizing the inevitability of elite rule, Burnham contends that a realistic understanding of power dynamics is essential for defending political freedom. He believes that by acknowledging and analyzing the structures of power, it is possible to create systems that limit the abuses of elite domination and protect individual liberties.
The Machiavellians is significant because it synthesizes and extends the ideas of classical and contemporary thinkers on elite theory and political realism. Burnham's analysis provides a framework for understanding the persistent patterns of elite rule and the challenges of achieving genuine democracy. His work remains relevant in discussions about the nature of political power, the role of elites, and the potential for maintaining freedom in complex societies.
James Burnham's exploration of elite theory in The Machiavellians: Defenders of Freedom* offers a profound understanding of the enduring nature of elite rule and the complexities of political power. By engaging with the insights of Machiavelli, Mosca, Pareto, and Michels, Burnham underscores the inevitability of oligarchic structures within any society. His realist approach sheds light on the pragmatic workings of power, challenging idealistic perceptions of democracy and emphasizing the need for a clear-eyed analysis of political dynamics.
Burnham's work remains a crucial reference for those seeking to navigate the intricate interplay between elites and the broader populace. Recognizing the persistent influence of managerial and technocratic elites, as Burnham detailed, equips us with the tools to critically evaluate contemporary governance and its implications for freedom. Ultimately, Burnham's synthesis serves as a call to vigilance and action, urging us to craft systems that not only acknowledge the realities of elite power but also strive to mitigate its potential excesses, thereby fostering a more balanced and equitable political landscape.
Elite theory remains highly relevant in contemporary political and social analysis, as it provides a framework for understanding how power and influence are concentrated among a small group of individuals and institutions.
Wealthy individuals and corporations contribute significant funds to political campaigns, gaining access to and influence over elected officials. This is evident in the role of Political Action Committees (PACs) and Super PACs in American elections. Corporations, industry groups, and wealthy individuals employ lobbyists to advocate for policies that benefit their interests. The revolving door between government positions and lobbying firms reinforces elite influence over policy-making.
CEOs and top executives of large corporations hold significant sway over economic policies and labor markets. Decisions made by these elites impact global trade, employment, and economic stability. The growing wealth gap highlights the concentration of economic power. The top 1% owns a disproportionate share of global wealth, influencing economic policies and perpetuating their status.
A few large corporations own a significant portion of media outlets, shaping public discourse and controlling the flow of information. Media moguls and tech giants like Rupert Murdoch and Mark Zuckerberg wield substantial influence over public opinion. Leaders of major tech companies, such as Google, Facebook, and Twitter, have the power to control information dissemination, impacting political outcomes and public perception.
High-ranking military officials and defense contractors play a critical role in shaping defense policies and budgets. The relationship between the Pentagon and defense industries exemplifies the military-industrial complex that C. Wright Mills described. Decisions related to national security and military interventions are often influenced by a small group of elites with vested interests in maintaining or expanding military power.
Prestigious universities, attended by the children of economic and political elites, perpetuate elite status by providing exclusive networks and opportunities. Influential think tanks and philanthropic foundations, often funded by wealthy elites, shape public policy and societal norms through research, advocacy, and grant-making.
Elites play a significant role in international bodies like the United Nations, the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund. Decisions made by these organizations often reflect the interests of powerful nations and economic elites. Events like the World Economic Forum in Davos bring together political leaders, corporate executives, and intellectual elites to discuss and influence global policies and trends.
Elite Machiavellians
Elite theory, as articulated by scholars like Vilfredo Pareto, Gaetano Mosca, and C. Wright Mills, delves into the dynamics of power concentration and its implications for democracy and governance.
Pareto introduced the concept of the "circulation of elites," suggesting that history is marked by the continuous replacement of one elite by another. He argued that societal change happens not because of mass movements but due to shifts within the elite class. Pareto identified two types of elites: the "lions" who favor force and tradition, and the "foxes" who use cunning and innovation.
Mosca emphasized the inevitability of elite rule, proposing that all societies are divided between a ruling minority and a ruled majority. He argued that the ruling class always finds ways to legitimize its power, often through legal, religious, or cultural means, thereby maintaining social stability and control.
C. Wright Mills, in his seminal work "The Power Elite," Mills explored the interconnectedness of the military, corporate, and political elites in the United States. He asserted that these elites form a cohesive power structure that makes critical decisions affecting the nation, often sidelining democratic processes and the broader public interest.
Elite Theory has several key features elucidated below.
Concentration of Power: Power is concentrated in the hands of a small, privileged group.
Elite Circulation: Elites are replaced by other elites rather than by ordinary citizens.
Control of Institutions: Elites dominate major institutions, such as governments, corporations, and media.
Legitimation: Elites legitimize their power through ideology, norms, and institutional frameworks.
Inequality: Elite theory often highlights the persistence of inequality and the limited potential for genuine mass participation in governance.
Elite Theory is not without its critiques. Critics argue that elite theory can be overly deterministic, underestimating the agency of non-elites and grassroots movements. It can oversimplify complex political dynamics by attributing too much influence to elites.
Critics also point out that it may neglect the pluralistic aspects of society where multiple groups can exert influence. Despite its critiques, elite theory remains influential in political science for its insights into power dynamics and its critical perspective on the functioning of democratic institutions.
American Elites
In the context of elite theory, the elites in America are typically individuals and groups who hold significant power and influence over key institutions and decision-making processes. These elites can be broadly categorized into several overlapping groups:
Political Elites: This includes top government officials, members of Congress, state governors, and influential bureaucrats. These individuals shape public policy and legislative agendas. Think presidents, senators, and influential congressmen like Nancy Pelosi or Mitch McConnell.
Economic Elites: This group is comprised of the wealthiest individuals and top executives of major corporations and financial institutions. They wield considerable influence over the economy and, through lobbying and campaign financing, over politics as well. Think billionaires such as Jeff Bezos, Elon Musk, and Warren Buffett.
Military Elites: High-ranking military officials and defense contractors are part of this group. They influence national security policy and defense spending. Think top generals and defense officials like the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Cultural Elites: Leading figures in the media, entertainment, and academia fall into this category. They shape public opinion, cultural norms, and intellectual discourse. Think media moguls like Rupert Murdoch, influential journalists, and prominent academics.
Tech Elites: Founders and leaders of major technology companies like Google, Facebook, Amazon, and Apple. They have significant influence over information flow, privacy, and digital infrastructure. Think tech CEOs like Mark Zuckerberg, Sundar Pichai, and Tim Cook.
Social Elites: Influential social figures, including major philanthropists, prominent social activists, and leaders of influential non-governmental organizations (NGOs). Think major philanthropists like Bill Gates and social activists with large followings and influence.
These elites often intersect and collaborate, forming networks of influence that shape policy, culture, and societal norms in America.
In Conclusion
Elite theory provides a critical lens through which to understand the persistent and pervasive influence of elites in modern society. By recognizing the concentration of power among political, economic, military, and cultural elites, we can better analyze the mechanisms through which they shape policy and public life. This understanding is essential for developing strategies to democratize power and ensure more equitable and inclusive governance.